The forms of the participle

Present participle

The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. Note the changes in spelling:

read » reading
study » studying
grow » growing
relax » relaxing
answer » answering
write » writing; argue » arguing (a final -e is omitted)
agree » agreeing (a final -ee does not change)
lie » lying (a final -ie changes to -y-)
put » putting; regret » regretting; readmit » readmitting (we double the final consonant if the verb ends in consonant-vowel-consonant, with the exception of w, x and y, and only has one syllable or has the stress on the last syllable)

The present participle does not in itself indicate the time of the action that it refers to. However, it does show that this time is the same as the time of the preceding verb or the verb in the main clause:

I watched the storm approaching. (approaching refers to the same time as watched: I watched as the storm was approaching.)
Having nowhere to sit, she stood in the back of the lecture hall. (having refers to the same time as stood: As she had nowhere to sit, she stood in the back of the lecture hall.)
Are you waiting for the bus? (waiting refers to the same time as are: present)
We will be arriving in Prague soon. (arriving refers to the same time as will be: future)

Perfect participle

The perfect participle indicates that the time of the action that it refers to is before that of the verb in the main clause:

Having taken the wrong turn, he ended up in a dangerous neighbourhood. (having taken refers to a time before ended up: After he had taken the wrong turn, he ended up in a dangerous neighbourhood.)

Past participle

The past participle is also called the third form of the verb. With regular verbs, the past participle is formed by adding -ed to the base form. Note the changes in spelling:

• look » looked
• stay » stayed
• arrive » arrived (we only add -d if the verb ends in -e)
• try » tried (a final -y changes to -i- after a consonant)
• stop » stopped (we double the final consonant if the verb ends in consonant-vowel-consonant)

A number of verbs have irregular past participle forms. A few examples are: 

• bite » bitten
• fly » flown
• hit » hit
• leave » left
• swim » swum

See the Appendix for a list of the most common irregular verbs in English.

The past participle can refer to the same time as the verb in the main clause or to a time before that:

Sue has all the qualifications required for the job. (required refers to the same time as has: Sue has all the qualifications that are required for the job.)

Damaged badly by the flood, the school had to be rebuilt. (damaged refers to a time before had to: As the school had been badly damaged by the flood, it had to be rebuilt.)

If we want to emphasise an earlier time, we use the passive perfect participle:

Having been nominated three times for an Oscar, he is one of today's most acclaimed film directors. (He has been nominated three times for an Oscar, and he is one of today's most acclaimed film directors.)

The past participle can have an active or a passive meaning. When used with a passive meaning, it is sometimes called the passive participle:

The fallen leaves covered the garden path. (the leaves that had fallen, active meaning)
This is the first time I've been here. (present perfect tense in active voice, active meaning)

There was a handwritten note on the table. (a note that had been written by hand, passive meaning)
When was the last time the lawn was mowed? (past simple tense in passive voice, passive meaning)